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=                                Tao                                 =
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                             Introduction
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Tao (, ) or Dao ( ; from  ) is a Chinese word signifying "way",
"path", "route", "road" or sometimes more loosely "doctrine",
"principle" or "holistic beliefs". In the context of East Asian
philosophy and East Asian religions, Tao is the natural order of the
universe whose character one's human intuition must discern in order
to realize the potential for individual wisdom. This intuitive knowing
of "life" cannot be grasped as a concept; it is known through actual
living experience of one's everyday being.

Laozi in the 'Tao Te Ching' explains that the Tao is not a "name" for
a "thing" but the underlying natural order of the Universe whose
ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe due to it being
non-conceptual yet evident in one's being of aliveness. The Tao is
"eternally nameless" (Tao Te Ching-32. Laozi) and to be distinguished
from the countless "named" things which are considered to be its
manifestations, the reality of life before its descriptions of it.

The Tao lends its name to the religious tradition (Wade-Giles, 'Tao
Chiao'; Pinyin, 'Daojiao') and philosophical tradition (Wade-Giles,
'Tao chia'; Pinyin, 'Daojia') that are both referred to in English
with the single term Taoism.


                 Description and uses of the concept
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The word "Tao" () has a variety of meanings in both ancient and modern
Chinese language. Aside from its purely prosaic use to mean road,
channel, path, principle, or similar, the word has acquired a variety
of differing and often confusing metaphorical, philosophical and
religious uses. In most belief systems, the word is used symbolically
in its sense of 'way' as the 'right' or 'proper' way of existence, or
in the context of ongoing practices of attainment or of the full
coming into being, or the state of enlightenment or spiritual
perfection that is the outcome of such practices.

Some scholars make sharp distinctions between moral or ethical usage
of the word "Tao" that is prominent in Confucianism and religious
Taoism and the more metaphysical usage of the term used in
philosophical Taoism and most forms of Mahayana Buddhism; others
maintain that these are not separate usages or meanings, seeing them
as mutually inclusive and compatible approaches to defining the
principle. The original use of the term was as a form of praxis rather
than theory - a term used as a convention to refer to something that
otherwise cannot be discussed in words - and early writings such as
the Tao Te Ching and the I Ching make pains to distinguish between
'conceptions of' the Tao (sometimes referred to as "named Tao") and
the Tao itself (the "unnamed Tao"), which cannot be expressed or
understood in language. Liu Da asserts that the Tao is properly
understood as an experiential and evolving concept, and that there are
not only cultural and religious differences in the interpretation of
the Tao, but personal differences that reflect the character of
individual practitioners.

The Tao can be roughly thought of as the 'flow of the Universe', or as
some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the
Universe balanced and ordered. It is related to the idea of qi, the
essential energy of action and existence. The Tao is a non-dualistic
principle - it is the greater whole from which all the individual
elements of the Universe derive. Keller considers it similar to the
negative theology of Western scholars, but the Tao is rarely an object
of direct worship, being treated more like the Hindu concepts of karma
or dharma than as a divine object. The Tao is more commonly expressed
in the relationship between 'wu' (void or emptiness, in the sense of
wuji) and yinyang (the natural dynamic balance between opposites),
leading to its central principle of wu wei (inaction, or inexertion).

The Tao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, and in
particular as similar to water. Like water it is undifferentiated,
endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful,
and impassively generous. Much of Taoist philosophy centers on the
cyclical continuity of the natural world, and its contrast to the
linear, goal-oriented actions of human beings.

In all its uses, the Tao is considered to have ineffable qualities
that prevent it from being defined or expressed in words. It can,
however, be 'known' or 'experienced', and its principles (which can be
discerned by observing Nature) can be followed or practiced. Much of
East Asian philosophical writing focuses on the value of adhering to
the principles of the Tao and the various consequences of failing to
do so.

The Tao was shared with Confucianism, Chán and Zen Buddhism and more
broadly throughout East Asian philosophy and religion in general. In
Taoism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism, the object of spiritual
practice is to 'become one with the Tao' (Tao Te Ching) or to
harmonise one's will with Nature (cf. Stoicism) in order to achieve
'effortless action' (Wu wei). This involves meditative and moral
practices. Important in this respect is the Taoist concept of De (;
virtue). In Confucianism and religious forms of Taoism, these are
often explicitly moral/ethical arguments about proper behavior, while
Buddhism and more philosophical forms of Taoism usually refer to the
natural and mercurial outcomes of action (comparable to karma). The
Tao is intrinsically related to the concepts yin and yang (pinyin:
yīnyáng), where every action creates counter-actions as unavoidable
movements within manifestations of the Tao, and proper practice
variously involves accepting, conforming to, or working with these
natural developments.


 De
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De ( "power; virtue; integrity") is the term generally used to refer
to proper adherence to the Tao; De is the active living or cultivation
of the way. Particular things (things with names) that manifest from
the Tao have their own inner nature that they follow, in accordance
with the Tao, and the following of this inner nature is De. Wuwei
(Pinyin: wúwéi), or "naturalness", is contingent on understanding and
conforming to this inner nature, which is interpreted variously from a
personal, individual nature to a more generalized notion of human
nature within the greater Universe.

Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Taoists
and Confucianists. Confucianism was largely a moral system emphasizing
the values of humaneness, righteousness, and filial duty, and so
conceived De in terms of obedience to rigorously defined and codified
social rules. Taoists took a broader, more naturalistic/metaphysical
view on the relationship between humankind and the Universe, and
considered social rules to be at best a derivative reflection of the
natural and spontaneous interactions between people, and at worst
calcified structure that inhibited naturalness and created conflict.
This led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Taoists
and Confucians. Several sections of the works attributed to Chuang Tzu
are dedicated to critiques of the failures of Confucianism.


 Taoist interpretations
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[Tao] means a road, path, way; and hence, the way in which one does
something; method, doctrine, principle. The Way of Heaven, for
example, is ruthless; when autumn comes 'no leaf is spared because of
its beauty, no flower because of its fragrance'. The Way of Man means,
among other things, procreation; and eunuchs are said to be 'far from
the Way of Man'. 'Chu Tao' is 'the way to be a monarch', i.e. the art
of ruling. Each school of philosophy has its 'tao', its doctrine of
the way in which life should be ordered. Finally in a particular
school of philosophy whose followers came to be called Taoists, 'tao'
meant 'the way the universe works'; and ultimately something very like
God, in the more abstract and philosophical sense of that term.

The Tao is what gives Taoism its English name, in both its
philosophical and religious forms. The Tao is the fundamental and
central concept of these schools of thought. Taoism perceives the Tao
as a natural order underlying the substance and activity of the
Universe. Language and the "naming" of the Tao is regarded negatively
in Taoism; the Tao fundamentally exists and operates outside the realm
of differentiation and linguistic constraints.


 Diversity of views
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There is no single orthodox Taoist view of the Tao. All forms of
Taoism center around Tao and De, but there is a broad variety of
distinct interpretations among sects and even individuals in the same
sect. Despite this diversity, there are some clear, common patterns
and trends in Taoism and its branches.

The diversity of Taoist interpretations of the Tao can be seen across
four texts representative of major streams of thought in Taoism. All
four texts are used in modern Taoism with varying acceptance and
emphasis among sects. The 'Tao Te Ching' is the oldest text and
representative of a speculative and philosophical approach to the Tao.
The 'Tao T'i Lun' is an eighth century exegesis of the 'Tao Te Ching',
written from a well-educated and religious viewpoint, that represents
the traditional scholarly perspective. The devotional perspective of
the Tao is expressed in the 'Ch'ing Ching Ching', a liturgical text
that was originally composed during the Han dynasty and is used as a
hymnal in religious Taoism, especially among eremites. The 'Zhuangzi'
(also spelled Chuang Tzu) uses literary devices such as tales,
allegories, and narratives to relate the Tao to the reader,
illustrating a metaphorical method of viewing and expressing the Tao.

The forms and variations of religious Taoism are incredibly diverse.
They integrate a broad spectrum of academic, ritualistic,
supernatural, devotional, literary, and folk practices with a
multitude of results. Buddhism and Confucianism particularly affected
the way many sects of Taoism framed, approached, and perceived the
Tao. The multitudinous branches of religious Taoism accordingly regard
the Tao, and interpret writings about it, in innumerable ways. Thus,
outside of a few broad similarities, it is difficult to provide an
accurate yet clear summary of their interpretation of the Tao.

A central tenet in most varieties of religious Taoism is that the Tao
is ever-present, but must be manifested, cultivated, and/or perfected
in order to be realized. It is the source of the Universe and the seed
of its primordial purity resides in all things. The manifestation of
the Tao is De, which rectifies and invigorates the world with the
Tao's radiance.

Alternatively, philosophical Taoism regards the Tao as a non-religious
concept; it is not a deity to be worshiped, nor is it a mystical
Absolute in the religious sense of the Hindu Brahman. Joseph Wu
remarked of this conception of the Tao, "Dao is not religiously
available; nor is it even religiously relevant." The writings of Lao
Tzu and Chang Tzu are tinged with esoteric tones and approach humanism
and naturalism as paradoxes. In contrast to the esotericism typically
found in religious systems, the Tao is not transcendent to the self
nor is mystical attainment an escape from the world in philosophical
Taoism. The self steeped in the Tao is the self grounded in its place
within the natural Universe. A person dwelling within the Tao excels
in themselves and their activities.


However, this distinction is complicated by hermeneutic (interpretive)
difficulties in the categorization of Taoist schools, sects and
movements. Some scholars believe that there is no distinction between
'Daojia' and 'Daojiao'. According to Kirkland, "most scholars who have
seriously studied Daoism, both in Asia and the West, have finally